Processes of Urbanisation (AQA A Level Geography)

• There are economic, social, technological, political and demographic processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

Table of Development Processes Associated with Urbanisation and Urban Growth

Economic	Urban economic growth is focused around ports and urban cores, and are called growth poles This encourages inward movement of people for jobs and better wages; As new workers earn, they spend – creating demand for additional companies The increased need for services such as infrastructure, housing, sanitation etc. creates jobs Businesses benefit from wider employment pool, generating larger profits, leading to increased jobs and wage increases - positive multiplier effect Primary sector economy changes from subsistence to commercial production, reducing available jobs and wages. This acts as a 'push' towards urban areas
Social	Higher wages, access to healthcare and a better lifestyle are a pull factors and as more people move to urban areas they can become centres of cultural expression such as art galleries, museums and food Increase in social diversity and cultures creates tolerance and understanding, however, it can also generate fear and intolerance along with segregation  Social inequalities are amplified in urban areas with pockets of deprivation and exclusivity clearly evident with gated communities and ghettos juxtaposed in some cities (e.g. Sao Paulo and Los Angeles)
Technological	Most HDEs urban areas are hotspots for technological advances due to past industrialisation - Manchester was known as 'Cottonoplis' and was the world leader in cotton processing. Nowadays, these areas specialise in hi-tech research and development and use science parks such as Silicon Valley, California, and Thames Valley, Oxford to further attract talent and specialised employees EMEs are also seeing this growth with increases in factories in cities such as Mumbai, Dhaka and Shanghai
Political	With increases in urban growth, inequalities are amplified with new a category of 'working' people arising Political response emerges to represent this new class of urban population with political reform focusing on issues surrounding the affect on urban life - housing, education, access to healthcare, working conditions and exploitation
Demographic	Inward migration (internal and international) increases as a city's influence grows, changing the demography of its population Urban areas become culturally and ethnically diverse creating a mosaic of different areas - Little Italy, Chinatown etc.  Age structure changes as cities are seen as never sleeping and ever changing, therefore, cities have a younger population as they seek the excitement and bright lights Many choose to stay and raise families and this also keeps urban areas as youthful populations

• Urban pull factors - positive multiplier effect
  • Higher wages
  • Pace and excitement
  • Improved education and healthcare
  • Better job opportunities
  • Public utilities: water, gas, electricity, etc.
  • Government support

• Urbanisation is part of a sequence of processes that may also involve the processes of suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation
• This sequence has occurred in many HDEs, including the UK and Germany, over the last 50 years
• Changes occur as urban environments age and the needs of people change
• These changes include:
  • Deindustrialisation - flight of industry and foreign competition
  • Rise in the service economy - improvement in education and training
  • Decentralisation - competition of land space

Clarke-Fisher Model of the UKs Employment Sectors

• Prior to industrialisation, the majority of people lived and worked within rural areas and cities were small with few opportunities
• With industrialisation, cities needed more workers
  • As more moved to the cities – there was a demand for low cost houses for the workers
  • This resulted in high-density cheap housing (fitting as many houses as possible in a small area
  • People had to live close to work due to lack of transport
  • This saw a rise in small corner shops and local facilities
• During the early 20th century, cities first started to see a decline as businesses and the more affluent, skilled and educated work force moved away to the new growth of suburbs
• This left behind empty buildings and housing occupied by those who couldn’t afford to move
• Initially after WWII, a period of growth began again and cities became centres of redevelopment
• However, during the 1960s there came competition from foreign developing economies (Singapore and Taiwan), who were producing goods at a cheaper rate
• By the 1970s, HDEs were struggling to compete with foreign made goods and industries began closing and moving overseas or collapsed entirely - Sheffield saw the loss of its steel production which led to mass unemployment and poverty
• Factories were abandoned and large areas laid to waste and became dumping ground, leading to a large stock of brownfield sites
• Deindustrialisation impacted heavily on cities and unemployment rose above 3 million in the UK in 1983, the highest rate of unemployment since WWII
• The losses of jobs and poor services, led to social unrest and a rise in crime for those left behind - a period of 'urban blight' set in

Rise of the service industry

• With deindustrialisation and high unemployment, the government began a new training programme to re-train people in the rise of technology and changes in finance and retail industries
• From the 1980s onwards, the retail and banking industry, along with higher wages and disposable income, expanded and became the dominant western economy 
• This was the rise of globalisation, and HDEs were well placed to take advantage over LDEs and EMEs through their past knowledge of industrial processes
• There began the growth in corporate (multinational) headquarters, along with the rise of the knowledge economy to meet the needs of other businesses 
• Research and development rose to meet the demands of the expanding population and subsequent rise and understanding of technology - hospitals, schools, universities etc.
• Property development was needed to meet the needs of 'new' businesses and housing for the rise of 'high-flyer' employees and executives
• Better pay, cheaper goods and more 'time-off' led to the increase in the demand for leisure services and tourism
• Core urban areas attract large multinational companies, and need to be serviced but also attract retail industry 
• Consumer services are located near affluent suburban populations with good transport access but also attracting a different workforce
• Research and development facilities are located at the urban fringe for space, access and locations near to universities 
• However, the overall urban employment rate remains high (a certain level of education and skill is needed to secure employment)
• Well paid managerial jobs are few and fiercely protected
• There is a high turn over of low paid and temporary jobs 

Decentralisation

• During the industrial revolution, industry tended to be located within the inner cities. However, as cities have grown, access to these areas have declined – workers, raw material and distribution of finished goods
• There is also the change in manufacturing practices and type – woollen mills, steel, paper etc.
• Inner city locations lacked expansion space or opportunities to reorganise
• Old industrial sites were often polluted, costly to clean up and a general public health hazard
• Retailing and commercial sectors were demanding land in a more central position
• This has led to a cross-over between decentralisation and the rise of the service economy:
  • More people have access to cars and this has led to new developments
  • Suburban CBDs – as urban areas grew, people found themselves further away from CBDs, so suburban retail and commercial centres expanded
  • Retail parks are sited along ring roads and major intersections
  • Urban superstores and hypermarkets – along points of high access and consumer demand – led by large corporations – Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury's etc.
  • Out of town shopping centres – providing one-stop shopping, eating and leisure facilities
  • Internet shopping and home delivery – this is changing the face of the urban area and traditional shopping habits
  • Peripheral locations are becoming more popular as they offer advantages, including niche markets, parking, accessibility and sometimes cheaper land prices
• Changes in service locations – this includes hospitals, sport complexes, golf courses, schools, colleges and university campuses
• Cheaper land, availability of space and potential for expansion, good access for transport and infrastructure
• Pleasant working environment - less pollution and time spent accessing the services
• Where the services have expanded, this has had a knock-on effect within the inner city regions
• With average or lower than average salaries, some key-workers have found themselves in inner city locations where they cannot afford to live - nurses, teachers, paramedics, police and fire officers
• This has led to further decline in the inner city areas

• Over the last 50 years, successive governments have continued to implement change, promote growth and development within the UKs urban areas

Prior to 1979

• One major design fault was the lack of open recreational spaces, the use of high density, high-rise flats and apartments during the redevelopment in the 60’s
• Once again, wealthier people left the inner city, leaving behind pensioners, one-parent families, students and ethnic minorities
• Over time, housing was allowed to deteriorate, and as people moved out, boarded-up buildings became common
• These attracted squatters, drug users and petty criminals
• Terms such as 'urban blight' were used to describe urban areas with derelict factories and run-down housing
• Tower blocks were eventually demolished
• By the end of the 1970s, inner city areas were suffering from:
  • Industrial decline
  • High unemployment
  • Abandoned warehouses - eyesores and attracted vandalism
  • High crime rates
  • Poor quality housing
  • Overcrowding
  • Lack of open spaces
  • Lack of parking spaces
  • Atmospheric pollution
  • Heavy traffic

1979-1990s

• The UK government finally took a serious look at urban decline and initiated a project called Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) to bring urban decay to a halt
• As well as bringing brownfield sites back into use, to improve housing conditions, it wanted to improve local prospects by offering training for employment to be provided by private investment
• This would hopefully lead to a reduction in unemployment, crime and antisocial behaviour
• Renewed economic activity was expected to lead to better living conditions in a better environment
• Many different schemes and task forces have been used to try to bring about these improvements, but overall housing, educational and employment prospects and health are below the national averages
• Problems in housing, education, employment, antisocial behaviour and crime are not confined to inner city areas

• If anything, they are greater on council estates, many of which were built on Greenfield sites in the 20 years after World War II

1981-present

• Enterprise Zones (EZs) were established in areas of high unemployment, with the hope of attracting companies to the area to boost the local economy by employing the local workforce
• The government provided incentives, such as reducing corporation and land taxes, reduced rents and cheaper power supplies
• By the end of the 1990s, EZs employed more than 125,000 people over 5000 companies 
• But, the incentives did encourage existing companies to move their staff and premises to EZs, effectively limiting the creating of new jobs

1991-1997

• Local authorities had the opportunity to complete for government funding to regenerate their deprived areas in a scheme called the City Challenge
• Working with local communities and private companies, improvements were made to the, economic, social and physical environment of the area
• Funding was allocated directly to local communities to improve housing, education and training, allowing people to access jobs and better healthcare
• By the end, over 50,000 jobs were created and 40,000 homes improved, but unfortunately many deprived areas missed out on funding

2010 to present

• In partnership with private companies, the government has provided financial support and expertise for urban regeneration and renewal 
• Called the Partnership Schemes, its aims are similar to the City Challenge, with the improvements to economic. social and physical environment of deprived areas
• Liverpool City Region Local Enterprise Partnership (2012) has increased business activity, created new jobs, provided parks, new affordable homes, regenerated Albert Docks and built new sports and leisure centres