Specialized Exchange Strategies
Specialized Exchange Strategies
- Effective exchange surfaces in organisms have:
- A large surface area
- Short diffusion distance
- Concentration gradient (maintained)
Single-Celled Organisms
- Chlamydomonas is a single-celled organism that is found in freshwater ponds. It is spherical in shape and has a diameter of 20 μm. Oxygen can diffuse across the cell wall and cell surface membrane of Chlamydomonas
- The maximum distance that oxygen molecules would have to diffuse to reach the centre of a Chlamydomonas is 10 μm, this takes 100 milliseconds
- Diffusion is an efficient exchange mechanism for Chlamydomonas
Insects
- All insects possess a rigid exoskeleton with a waxy coating that is impermeable to gases
- Insects have evolved a breathing system that delivers oxygen directly to all the organs and tissues of their bodies
- A spiracle is an opening in the exoskeleton of an insect which has valves
- It allows air to enter the insect and flow into the system of tracheae
- Tracheae are tubes within the insect breathing system which lead to tracheoles (narrower tubes)
- The tracheae walls have reinforcement that keeps them open as the air pressure inside them fluctuates
- A large number of tracheoles run between cells and into the muscle fibers - the site of gas exchange
- For smaller insects, this system provides sufficient oxygen via diffusion
Tracheal System of an Insect Diagram
The structure of the tracheal system of an insect
- Very active flying insects need a more rapid supply/intake of oxygen
- They create a mass flow of air into the tracheal system by:
- Closing the spiracles
- Using muscles to create a pumping movement for ventilation
- Also, during flight, the water found at the narrow ends of the tracheoles is drawn into the respiring muscle so gas diffuses across more quickly
Fish
- Oxygen is only moderately soluble in water
- A given volume of air contains 30 times more oxygen than the same volume of water
- Fish are adapted to extract dissolved oxygen directly from water
- Structure of fish gills in bony fish:
- Series of gills on each side of the head
- Each gill arch is attached to two stacks of filaments
- On the surface of each filament, there are rows of lamellae
- The lamella surface consists of a single layer of flattened cells that cover a vast network of capillaries
- Mechanism:
- The capillary system within the lamellae ensures that the blood flow is in the opposite direction to the flow of water; it is a countercurrent system
- The countercurrent system ensures the concentration gradient is maintained along the whole length of the capillary
- The water with the lowest oxygen concentration is found adjacent to the most deoxygenated blood
Gas Exchange in the Gills of a Fish Diagram
The structure of fish gills and the countercurrent system within gills
Plants
- In order to carry out photosynthesis, plants must have an adequate supply of carbon dioxide
- There is only roughly 0.042% CO2 in the atmosphere, so efficient gas exchange is necessary
- Leaves have evolved adaptations to aid the uptake of carbon dioxide
- Structure of a leaf:
- Waterproof cuticle
- Upper epidermis; a layer of tightly packed cells
- Palisade mesophyll; a layer of elongated cells containing chloroplasts
- Spongy mesophyll; a layer of cells that contains an extensive network of air spaces
- Stomata; pores (usually) on the underside of the leaf which allow air to enter
- Guard cells; pairs of cells that control the opening and closing of the stomata
- Lower epidermis; a layer of tightly packed cells
- Mechanism:
- When the guard cells are turgid (full of water), the stoma remains open allowing air to enter the leaf
- The air spaces within the spongy mesophyll layer allows carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly into cells
- The carbon dioxide is used up quickly in photosynthesis by cells containing chloroplasts, maintaining the concentration gradient
- No active ventilation is required as the thinness of the plant tissues and the presence of stomata helps to create a short diffusion pathway
Leaf Structure Diagram
The structure of a leaf
Adaptations of Gas Exchange Surfaces
System | Large Surface Area | Short Diffusion Distance | Concentration Gradient |
Insect Tracheal | Large number of tracheoles | Spiracles and tracheoles run between cells | Oxygen is used by respiring muscle fibers |
Fish Gills | Large numbers of filaments |
Surface of lamella is a single layer of flattened cells |
Countercurrent system of blood flow and water flow |
Leaves of Plants | Air spaces in spongy mesophyll layer |
Thin tissues within the leaf |
Carbon dioxide used immediately by photosynthetic cells |
Exam Tip
Make sure you know how and why each system above is adapted for efficient gas exchange, particularly how it maximizes its surface area.